​Investor–State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) has long been a cornerstone of international investment protection, designed to encourage cross-border investments by offering foreign investors a neutral forum to bring claims against host states. However, over the years, the system has faced increasing scrutiny over fairness, transparency, and its impact on national sovereignty. Today, ISDS reform has become one of the most critical …

Blockchain technology, initially popularized by cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, is a decentralized and immutable digital ledger that records transactions across multiple computers in a way that ensures security and transparency. Each block in the chain contains a list of transactions linked to the previous block through cryptographic hashes. This technology’s decentralized nature eliminates the need for intermediaries, making transactions faster, cheaper, …